Coronaviruses are a group of viruses that contain single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genomes. Several members of this group, which include severe acute respiratory syndrome coronaviruses (SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2) and Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), are highly pathogenic and have caused significant disease outbreaks in human hosts. In order for human coronaviruses to transcribe and replicate their genomes within host cells, they must first attach and gain entry into host cells using a variety of cell surface receptors and components of the endocytic machinery.

Formation of Cleaved Caspase: During apoptosis, caspase zymogens are cleaved to form active enzymes. This cleavage is irreversible and marks the irreversible stage of apoptosis.In many diseases, abnormal regulation of apoptosis is closely related to the occurrence and development of the disease.

Mammalian histone deacetylases can be divided into three classes on the basis of their similarity to various yeast deacetylases. Class I proteins (HDACs 1, 2, 3, and 8) are related to the yeast Rpd3-like proteins, those in class II (HDACs 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, and 10) are related to yeast Hda1-like proteins, and class III proteins are related to the yeast protein Sir2. Inhibitors of HDAC activity are now being explored as potential therapeutic cancer agents.

The interferon (IFN) family comprises three classes: type I (IFN-α/β/κ/ε/ω), type II (IFN-γ) and type III (IFN-λ1/2/3).

The transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) superfamily comprises over 30 members, including TGF-β, Activin, Inhibin, bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs), and growth differentiation factors (GDFs).

Cellular Localization IF (Immunofluorescence) is an experimental method based on immunofluorescence technology, used to observe the distribution of specific antigens within cells.

Cdc25 is a protein phosphatase responsible for dephosphorylating and activating cdc2, a crucial step in regulating the entry of all eukaryotic cells into mitosis (1). cdc25C is constitutively phosphorylated at Ser216 throughout interphase by c-TAK1, while phosphorylation at this site is DNA damage-dependent at the G2/M checkpoint (2). When phosphorylated at Ser216, cdc25C binds to members of the 14-3-3 family of proteins, sequestering cdc25C in the cytoplasm and thereby preventing premature mitosis (3). The checkpoint kinases Chk1 and Chk2 phosphorylate cdc25C at Ser216 in response to DNA damage (4,5).

c-Kit is a member of the subfamily of receptor tyrosine kinases that includes PDGF, CSF-1, and FLT3/flk-2 receptors. It plays a critical role in activation and growth in a number of cell types, including hematopoietic stem cells, mast cells, melanocytes, and germ cells.

The colony-stimulating factor (CSF) family comprises soluble glycoproteins that govern the survival, proliferation and lineage-specific differentiation of hematopoietic progenitors while activating mature blood cells.

CDK Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) are the core effectors of cell cycle progression. CDK activity is regulated through association with their cyclin partners and cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors (CKIs) as well as by activating and inhibitory phosphorylation events.