Within the phosphatidylinositol signal cascade, cell-surface receptors bind external signaling ligands to trigger phospholipase C (PLC) activation. The activated PLC enzyme then breaks down phosphatidylinositol-(4,5)-bisphosphate (PIP2), splitting it into two distinct secondary messenger molecules: inositol trisphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG). These two messengers jointly translate extracellular stimulation into intracellular signaling events, forming the phosphatidylinositol signal transmission network, which is also widely referred to as the dual messenger system.

Ras, the abbreviation for rat sarcoma, is a small monomeric GTP‑binding protein that possesses low intrinsic GTPase activity. This protein is predominantly anchored to the cytoplasmic face of the cell plasma membrane, and it remains functionally quiescent when coupled to GDP molecules.

The transforming growth factor beta (TGF‑β) signal cascade refers to a complete set of intracellular signal transmission events triggered by TGF‑β ligands. This signaling axis performs irreplaceable regulatory functions across numerous biological activities, including cell division, extracellular matrix synthesis, cell fate differentiation, programmed cell death, embryonic morphogenesis, organ construction, immune homeostasis and inflammatory reactions.

Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF, commonly abbreviated as TNFα) is a cytokine that selectively eliminates tumor cells without producing prominent toxic effects on normal healthy cells. It functions as an intracellular signaling mediator that modulates systemic inflammation and constitutes one of the key cytokine components that initiate the organism’s acute‑phase response.

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), also known as vascular permeability factor (VPF), is a dimeric glycoprotein ligand that activates a complex signal transduction network responsible for new blood vessel formation. Once VEGF binds to cell surface VEGF receptors (VEGFRs), the intracellular tyrosine kinase domains become activated, triggering sequential signaling events that regulate vasculogenesis and angiogenesis processes.

Natural killer (NK) cells represent a vital subset of lymphocytes that constitute the body’s innate immune defense system. These large granular lymphocytes carry abundant cytoplasmic granules, sharing partial morphological features with monocytes. NK cells possess direct cytotoxic capability against abnormal target cells, serving critical roles in antiviral defense, immune surveillance and tumor suppression. In addition, they secrete functional cytokines such as IFN-γ to regulate hematopoiesis, inflammatory responses and systematic immune reactions.

Stem cells represent a special cell population featuring self-renewal capacity, robust proliferative activity and multidirectional differentiation potential. Based on developmental origins, they are categorized into embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and adult stem cells (ASCs). Embryonic stem cells possess totipotency and unlimited proliferative capacity, capable of generating all somatic cell subtypes; this group includes embryonic stem cells and embryonic germ stem cells. Adult stem cell subtypes cover neural stem cells, hematopoietic stem cells, bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells and epidermal stem cells, among others.

The micrometer-sized cell lysate components cannot be efficiently phagocytosed and taken up by antigen-presenting cells, making it difficult to initiate the subsequent cascade immune response. Based on the above industry pain points, this study innovatively explores the construction strategy of tumor whole-cell component nanovaccines, trying to break through the single limitation of water-soluble antigens, integrate water-soluble and water-insoluble full-component antigens of tumors, optimize vaccine size and drug loading methods, and develop broad-spectrum cancer nanovaccines with both therapeutic and preventive effects.

In ELISA enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, TMB chromogenic substrate is an essential core reagent.